its important

4.1       Definition of cooking:

Cooking is the application of heat to food for the purpose of making it
more digestible, safer to eat, more palatable and to change its
appearance. In the cooking processes heat breaks down the cellulose
in plant foods, softens some of the connective tissues of meat, breaks
down and gels starches present, changes and bends flavours within
the food, destroys bacteria and makes food more acceptable to
humans and human digestion.

Cooking may include a process of extraction, leaching and steeping
by which soluble materials are removed from a food for use as
flavouring medium. When bones are simmered to produce stock for
e.g. the soluble compounds in the bones are extracted and passed
into simmering water. Stock can then be used in soup and sauce
making.

While the application of heat to food materials is the principal action
taking place in cooking, other things are done to enhance the flavour,
and spices, seasoning and sauces are added. The food may be
marinated before cooking; it may be cooked in wine. Fat may be
added before, during or after cooking. Flavours and colours may be
added. Different foods are blended together to produce new flavours
and appearances. Some foods such as raw fish are made palatable by
marinating in lime juice. The acid in the juice breaks down the
connective tissues of the fish and inhibits bacteria.

The baking of pies, cakes, cookies and various dough’s is also cooking in the sense that heat is applied to food material. In most baking the leavening action takes place. Air, steam or carbon dioxide stretches the gluten in the dough to expand it.

4.2       Aims and objectives of cooking:

• Sterilization: It is the process of killing pathogenic bacteria and

worms present in the food. Boiling and freezing are two popular

methods of sterilization.

• Preservation: Cooking also helps to preserve the food for a

longer time with the help of spices, oils and sugar syrups, etc.,

mixed with it while being processed.

• Digestibility: Cooking also helps in digestibility of certain

vegetables and raw food which cannot be digested if taken

uncooked.

• Appetizing: Cooking gives an appearance to the food which

makes it presentable and also appetizing. On application of heat,
the red colouring matter such as haemoglobin in meat
decomposes and changes the red colour to brown. Flavours are
developed, which stimulate the digestive juices. The colours of
vegetable are brightened.

• Enhancement of nutritive value: Though cooking may

destroy certain vitamins it usually enhances its nutritive value

by breaking up heavy materials like fat into digestible particles.

• Variety: Cooking produces variety from the same ingredients.

Several type of preparation can be made from one raw

ingredient.

Objectives of Cooking:

• Retaining nutritive value of the food.
• Retaining the original colour of the food.
• Prevent clash of flavours.
• No under cooking or over cooking

4.3       Classification of methods of cooking:

Method of cooking

                                                                                                                                                                                               

 

     Medium of Heat                                                Medium of Fat                           Medium of Liquid

                               

 

    Baking                                 Broiling                                     Braising     Stewing      Steaming        Boiling       Poaching

 

                                                                                                                               Direct                  Indirect

 

   Roasting                                                               Frying

                                                (Very little fat)

 

Split           Tandoor               Pot          Oven                                       Deep fry                 Shallow fry

                                                                                      Grilling

 

                                                                          Open fire       Salamander

4.4       Boiling and Simmering:

Boiling is the cooking of prepared foods in a liquid at boiling point. This could be water, court-bouillon, milk or stock.

Purpose:

The purpose of boiling is to cook food so that it is;

·        Pleasant to eat with an agreeable flavour.

·        Of as suitable texture, tender or slightly form according to the food.

·        Easy to digest.

·        Safe to eat.

Method:

There are two ways of boiling:

·        Place the food into boiling liquid, reboil, then reduce the heat for gentle boiling to take place, this is known as simmering.

·        Cover food with cold liquid, bring to the boil, then reduce heat to allow food to simmer

Effects of boiling:

Gentle boiling helps to break down the tough fibrous structure of certain foods which would be less tender if cooked by other methods. When boiling meats for longer periods the soluble meat extracts are dissolved in the cooking liquid. Cooking must be slow in order to give time for the connective tissue in tough meat to be changed into soluble gelatin, so releasing the fibers and making the meat tender. If the connective tissue gelatins too quickly the meat fibers fall apart and the meat will be tough and stringy. Gentle heat will ensure coagulation of protein without hardening.

Advantages of boiling:

·        Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can be made palatable and digestible.

·        It is appropriate for large-scale cookery and is economic on fuel.

·        Nutritious, well-flavoured stock can be produced.

·        Labour saving, as boiling needs little attention.

1)      The advantages of food started slowly in cold liquid, brought to the boil and allowed to boil gently;

·        Helps to tenderize the fibrous structure (meat), extracts starch (vegetables soup) and flavour from certain foods (stocks).

·        Can avoid damage to foods which would lose their shape if added to boiling liquid, eg whole fish.

2)      Adding food to boiling liquid:

·        Is suitable for green vegetables as maximum colour and nutritive value and retained, provided boiling is restricted to the minimum time.

·        Seals in the natural juices as with meat.

Time and temperature control:
Temperature must be controlled so that the liquid is brought to the boil, or reboil, then adjusted in order that gentle takes place until the food is cooked to the required degree. Stocks, soups and sauces must only simmer; pasta cooked slightly firm (al dente), meat and poultry well cooked and tender; vegetables should not be overcooked.

General rules:

·        Select pans which are neither too small not too long.

·        When cooking in boiling liquid ensure there is sufficient liquid and that it is at boiling point before adding food.

·        Frequently skim during the cooking.

·        Simmer whenever possible so as to minimize evaporation, maintain volume of liquid and minimize shrinkage.

Safety:

·        Select containers of the right capacity- if they are too small there is danger of boiling liquid splashing over, forming steam and causing scalds.

·        Always move pans of boiling liquid on the stove with care.

·        Position pan handles so that they do not protrude from stove or become hot over the heat.

·        Extra care is required when adding or removing foods from containers of boiling liquid.

4.5       Poaching:

Poaching is the cooking of foods in the required amount of liquid at just below boiling points.

Purpose:

The purpose of poaching food is to cook food so that it is:

·        Easy to digest.

·        A suitable tender texture.

·        Safe to eat.

·        Pleasant to eat because, where appropriate, an agreeable sauce is made with the cooking liquid.

 Method:

There are two ways of poaching: shallow and deep.

·        Shallow poaching: foods to be cooked by this method, such as cuts of fish and chicken, are cooked in the minimum of liquid, that is, water, stock, milk, or wine. The liquid should never be allowed to boil but kept at a temperature as near to boiling point as possible. To prevent the liquid boiling, bring to the boil on top of the stove and complete the cooking in a moderate oven at approximately 180’C.

·        Deep poaching: eggs are cooked in approximately 3 inch or 8 cm of gently simmering water. The English term boiling is frequently used for what in French is called Poche (poached). Boiled cod, salmon, turbot and chicken are referred to as boiled in English and poche in French. Whole fish and chicken are covered with cold liquid, brought to the boil and allowed to simmer gently until cooked. Cuts of fish on the bone, such as fish steaks (troncon and darne) are placed into simmering liquid and cooked gently.

Effects of poaching:

Poaching helps to tenderize the fibrous structure of the food, and the raw texture of the food becomes edible by chemical action.

Temperature and the control:

·        Temperature must be controlled so that the cooking liquor does not fall below, or exceed, the correct degree required:

Shallow poaching is just below simmering point (and may be carried out in an oven)

Deep poaching is just below gentle simmering.

·        Time is important so that the food is neither undercook, therefore unpalatable, nor overcooked, when it will break up and also lose nutritive value.

·        The various types and quantities of food will affect both time and temperature, needed to achieve successful poaching.

Safety:

·        Select suitable sized pans to prevent spillage and possible scalding.

·        Move trays, etc..carefully on and off stove, or from the oven, as tilting or jarring may cause spillage.

·        Carefully place food in the pan when adding to simmering liquid.

·        When a hot container is removed from the oven

4.6       Stewing:

The word stew comes from the French word ‘etuver’ meaning ‘to cook in its own juice’.

Stewing is the slow cooking of food cut into pieces and cooked in the minimum amount of liquid (water, stock or sauce); the food and liquid are served together.

Purpose:

Because stewing is both economical and nutritional, cheaper cuts of meat and poultry, which would be unsuitable for roasting and grilling, can be made tender and palatable. Stewing also produces an acceptable flavour, texture and eating quality.

Methods of stewing:

All stews have a thickened consistency by:

·        The unpassed ingredients in the stew, such as Irish stew.

·        Thickening of the cooking liquor, such as white stew (blanquette).

·        Cooking in the sauce, such as brown stew (navarin).

Stewed foods can be cooked in a covered pan on the stove or in a moderate oven.

Effects of stewing:

In the slow process of cooking in gentle heat, the connective tissue in meat and poultry is converted into a gelatinous substance so that the fibres fall apart easily and becomes digestible. The protein is coagulated without being toughened. Unlike boiling, less liquid is used and the cooking temperature is approximately 5’C lower.

Advantages:

·        The meat juices which escape from the meat during cooking are retained in the liquid which is part of the stew.

·        Correct slow cooking results in very little evaporation.

·        Nutrients are conserved.

·        Tough goods are tenderized.

·        It is economical in labour because foods can be cooked in bulk.

Temperature and the control:

·        Temperature control is essential to the slow cooking required for efficient stewing; therefore, the liquid must barely simmer.

·        A tight-fitting lid is used to retain steam which helps maintain temperature and reduce evaporation.

·        Time will vary according to the quality of the food used.

·        The ideal cooking temperature for stewing on top of the stove is approximately 82’C (180’F) (simmering temperature); or cooking in the oven at 170’C.

General rules:

·        Stews should not be over-thickened. The sauce should be light in consistency; therefore, correct ratios of thickening agents are essential.

·        Adjustment to the consistency should be made as required during cooking.

·        Overcooking causes (a) evaporation of liquid; (b) breaking up of the food; (c) discolouration; and (d) spoilage of flavour.

Safety:

·        Select suitable size pans.

·        Care is essential when removing hot pans from the oven.

·        When removing lids be careful of escaping steam, which may cause scalds.

·        Sprinkle flour on hot pans and lids after removal from the oven as a warning that they are hot.

·        Ensure that pan handles are not over the heat or sticking out from the stove.

4.7       Braising:

Braising is a combination of pot roasting and stewing. Pot roasting, because it is carried out in an oven and stewing because it is cooked in a minimum amount of liquid in an enclosed container, casserole or cocotte.

Purpose:

The purpose of braising is:

·        To give variety to the menu and the diet.

·        To make food tender, digestible, palatable and safe to eat.

·        To produce and enhance flavour, texture and eating quality.

Method of braising:

 The technique of braising is long and slow because tough meats are used. The highly flavoured liquor or sauce becomes integral part of the complete dish. There are two method used in braising:

·        White braising: (celery, cabbage and sweetbreads). Foods are blanched, refreshed, covered on a bed of root vegetables with white stock in a covered container in the oven.

·        Brown braising: is used to cook meats such as beef, veal, mutton, duck, and offal, tongue and ox tail.In brown braising the process is initially started by browning the meat by shallow frying or flash roasting at 250’C to seal the flavor of the meat and give it a distinct colour and flavor. The flavor of braised items is additionally enhanced by a mirepoix and bouquet garni.

Effects of braising:

Cooking by braising causes the breakdown of the tissue fibre in the structure of cartain foods which softens the texture, thus making it tender and edible. The texture is also improved by being cooked in the braising liquid.

Advantages:

·       Tougher, less expensive meats and poultry can used.

·       Maximum flavour and nutritional value are retained.

·       Variety of presentation and flavour is given to the menu.

Time and temperature control:

·        Slow cooking is essential for efficient braising; the liquid must barely simmer.

·        To reduce evaporation and maintain temperature, use a tight-fitting lid.

·         Time needed for braising will vary according to the quality of the food.

·        Ideal oven temperature for braising is 160’C.

General rules:

These are the same as for stewing. However, if the joints are to be served whole, the lid is removed three-quarters. The joints is then frequently basted.

Safety:

·        Select a suitably sized pan with a tight-fitting lid and handles.

·        Care is required when removing hot pans from the oven and when removing the lid.

·        Sprinkle flour on hot pans and lids after removal from the oven as a warning.

4.8       Steaming:

Steaming is the cooking of prepared foods by steam under varying degrees of pressure.

Purpose:

The purpose of steaming food is to cook it so that it is:

·        Easy to digest.

·        Of an edible texture and pleasant to eat.

·        Safe to eat.

·        As nutritious as possible (steaming minimize nutritive loss).

Methods of steaming:

Atmospheric or low-pressure steaming:

·        Direct: in a steamer or in a pan of boiling water (steak and kidney pudding).

·        Indirect: between two plates over a pan of boiling water

High-pressure steaming: in purpose-built equipment, which does not allow the steam to escape, therefore enabling steam pressure to built up, thus increasing the temperature and reducing cooking time.

Effects of steaming:

When food is steamed the structure and texture is changed by chemical action and becomes edible. The texture will vary according to the type of food, type of steamer and degree of heat; sponges and puddings are lighter in texture if steamed rather than baked.

Advantages of steaming:

These include:

·        Retention of goodness (nutritional value).

·        Makes some foods lighter and easy to digest.

·        Low-pressure steaming reduces risk of overcooking protein.

·        High-pressure steaming enables food to be cooked or reheat quickly because steam is forced through the food, thus cooking it rapidly.

·        Labour-saving and suitable for large-scale cookery.

·        Steaming is economical on fuel as a low heat is needed and multitiered steamer can be used.

Time and temperature control:

For high-pressure steaming, food should be placed in the steamer when the pressure gauge indicates the required degree of pressure. This will ensure that the necessary cooking temperature has been reached.

Cooking times will vary according to the equipment used and the type, size and quality of food to be steamed.

Specific points:

Meat and sweet pudding basins must be greased, then after being filled, efficiently covered with greased greaseproof or silicone paper and foil to prevent moisture penetrating and resulting in a soggy pudding.

Safety factors:

·        Where applicable, check that the water in the water well is at the correct level and that the ball-valve arm moves freely.

·        Before opening the steamer door, allow the steam pressure to drop.

·        Take extra care when opening the door, use it as a shield from escaping steam as a severe scald may result.

4.9       Roasting:

Roasting is cooking in dry heat with the aid of fat or oil in an oven or a spit. Radiant heat is the means of cooking when using a spit; oven roasting is a combination of convection and radition.

Purpose:

The purpose of roasting is to cook food so that it is tender, easy to digest, safe to eat and palatable. It also gives variety to the menu and the diet.

Methods:

·        Placing prepared foods (meat, poultry) on a roasting spit over or in front jof fierce radiated heat.

·        Placing prepared foods in an oven with either:

o       Applied dry heat

o       Forced air-convected heat

o       Convected heat combined with microwave energy

Effects of roasting:

The surface protein of the food is sealed by the initial heat of the oven, thus preventing the escape of too many natural juices. When the food is lightly browned the oven temperature is reduced to cook the inside of the food without hardening the surface.

Advantages:

·        Good quality meat and poultry is tender and succulent when roasted.

·        Meat juices issuing from the joints are used for gravy and enhance flavour.

·        Both energy and oven temperature can be controlled.

·        Ovens with transparent doors enable cooking to be observed.

·        Access, adjustment and removal of items is straightforward.

·        Minimal fire risk.

Spit roasting:

·        Skill and techniques can be displayed to the customers.

·        Continual basting with the meat juice over the carcass or joint on the revolving spit gives a distinctive flavour, depending on the fuel used ( wood, charcoal).

Time and temperature control:

·        Ovens must be preheated.

·        Ovens temperature and shelf settings in recipes must be followed.

·        Shapes, size, type, bone proportion and quality of food will affect the cooking time.

·        Meat thermometers or probes can be inserted to determine the exact temperature in the centre of the joint.

Safety:

·        Roasting trays should be of a suitable size: if too small, basting becomes difficult and dangerous, if too large, fat in the tray will burn, spoiling the flavour of the meat and gravy.

·        Handling hot roasting trays carefully at all times, using a thick, dry cloth.

·        Ensure food is securely held before removing from roasting tray.

Pot roasting:

Definition:

Pot roasting is cooking on a bed of root vegetables in a covered pan. Known as poele, this method retains maximum flavour of all ingredients.

Method:
Place the food, eg meat or poultry on a bed of roots and herbs, coat generously with butter or oil, cover with a lid and cook in an oven.

General rules:

·        Select pans neither too large nor too small.

·        Use the vegetables and herbs with a good stock as a base for the sauce.

Tandoori cooking:

Tandoori cooking is done by dry heat in a clay oven called a tandoor. Although the heat source is at the base of the oven the oven heat is distributed because of the clay which radiates heat evenly.

Method:

Meat (small cuts and small joints), poultry (small cuts and whole chicken) and fish are usually placed vertically in the oven. No fat or oil is used. The food is cooked quickly and the flavour is similar to that of barbequed food. Oven temperatures reach 375’C (700’C). depending upon the type, food may be marinated for 20 minutes to 2 hours before being cooked and in some cases they may be brushed with the marinated during cooking.

Naan, tandoori roti etc are slapped onto the inside walls of a tandoor and cooks alongside other skewered foods.

Advantages:

·        The distinctive flavour of tandoori-cooked food comes from both the marinade and the cooking process.

·        Marinading tenderizes and also adds flavour to foods.

·        Colour changes may occur depending on the spices used.

4.10     Grilling and Broiling:

This is a fast method of cooking by radiant heat sometimes known as broiling.

Purpose:

The purpose of grilling is:

·        To make foods digestible, palatable and safe to eat.

·        To utilize the speed of the cooking process to produce a distinctive flavour, colour, texture and eating quality.

·        To bring variety to the menu and to introduce into the diet simple, uncomplicated dishes.

Methods of grilling:

Grilled foods can be cooked:

·        Over heat (charcoal, barbeque, gas or electric heated grills).

·        Under heat (gas or electric salamanders).

·        Between heat (electrically heated grill bars or plates).

·        Barbecuing

Effects of grilling:

Because of the speed of cooking there is maximum retention of nutrients and flavour. Grilling is only suitable for certain cuts of best quality meat; inferior meat would be tough and inedible. The effect of fierce heat on the surface of the meat rapidly coagulates and seals the surface protein, thus helping to retain the meat juices. Grilled meats lose less of the juices than meat cooked by any other method provided they are not pierced with a fork while cooking.

Advantages:

·        Speed of grilling enables food to be quickly cooked to order.

·        Charring foods gives a distinctive appearance and improves flavour.

·        Control of cooking is aided because food is visible while being grilled.

·        Variety is given to menu and diet.

·        Grills may be situated in view of the customer.

French Grilling terms:

·        Au bleu  ------ rare, very underdone

·        Saignant ------ underdone

·        A point   ------ just done (medium)

·        Biencuit ------- well cooked

General rules for efficient grilling:

·        Smaller, thinner items require cooking quickly.

·        Seal and colour food on the hot part of the grill then move to a cooler part to complete cooking.

·        Slow cooking results in the food drying out.

·        Basting of food and oiling of bars prevents dryness.

·        Tongs are used for turning and lifting tomatoes, mushrooms, whole or cut fish, from trays.

Safety:

·        Take extra care when moving hot salamander and grill bars.

·        Trays used for grilling must have raised edges and not be overloaded.

·        Never place trays on the top of the heated salamander.

·        Take care when removing foods from grills and salamanders.

4.11     Shallow frying:

Shallow frying is the cooking of food in a small quantity of preheated fat or oil in a shallow pan or on a flat surface (griddle plate).

Purpose:

The purpose of shallow frying is:

·        To give variety to the menu and the diet, by making food palatable, digestible and safe to eat.

·        To brown food giving it a different colour and an interesting and attractive flavour.

Methods:

There are four methods of frying using a shallow amount of fat or oil: shallow fry, sauté, griddle, stir fry.

Shallow fry: food is cooked in a small amount of fat or oil in a frying pan or sauté pan. The presentation side of the food should be fried first, as this side will have the better appearance because the fat is clean, then turned so that both sides are cooked and coloured. This applies to small cuts of fish, meat and poultry, also small whole fish. Eggs, pancakes and certain vegetables are cooked by this method. The term meuniere refers to shallow-fried fish which is passed through seasoned flour, shallow fried and finished with lemon juice, nut-brown butter and chopped parsley.

 Sauté:

Tender cuts of meat and poultry are cooked in a sauté or frying pan. After the food is cooked on both sides it is removed from the pan, the fat is discarded and the pan deglazed with stock or wine. This then forms an important part of the finished sauce.

Sauté is also used when cooking, for example, potatos, onion or kidneys, when they are cut into slices or pieces and tossed (sauter means to jump or toss) in hot shallow fat or oil in a frying pan until golden brown and cooked.

Griddle:

Foods can be cooked on a griddle ( a solid metal plate); hamburgers, sausages or sliced onions are placed on a lightly oiled preheated griddle and turned frequently during cooking. Pancakes may be cooked this way but are turned only once.

Stir fry:

Vegetables, strips of beef, chicken, etc can be fast fried in a wok or frying pan in a little fat or oil.

Effects:

The high temperature used in shallow frying produces almost instant coagulation of the surface protein of the food and prevents the escape of the natural juices. Some of the frying medium will be absorbed by the food being fried, which will change the nutritional content.

Advantages:

Shallow frying is a quick method of cooking prime cuts of meat and poultry as suitable fats or oils can be raised to a high temperature without burning. As the food is in direct contact with the fat, it cooks rapidly.

Time and temperature control:

This is particularly important as all shallow-fried foods should have an appetizing golden brown colour on both sides. This can only be achieved by careful control of the temperature, which should be initially hot, the heat is then reduced and the food turned when required.

General rules:

·        When shallow frying continuously over a busy period, prepare and cook in a systematic way.

·        Pans should be cleaned after every use.

·        New pans used for frying (exeept sauté pans) must be provided before being used.

Safety:

·        Select the correct type and size of pan; not too small, as food, such as fish, will not brown evenly and may break up; not too large, as areas not covered by food will burn and spoil the flavour of the food being cooked.

·        Always keep sleeves rolled down as splashing fat may burn the forearm.

·        Avoid being splashed by hot fat when placing food in the pan- add it carefully away from you.

·        Use a thick, clean, dry cloth when handling pans.

·        Move pans carefully in case they jar and tip fat onto the stove.

4.12     Deep frying:

This is the cooking of food in preheated deep oil or clarified fat.

Purpose:   

The purpose of deep frying is:

·        To cook appetizing foods of various kinds thus giving variety to the diet and the menu.

·        To produce food with am appetizing golden brown colour, crisp, palatable and safe to eat.

·         

Methods:

Conventional deep-fried foods, with the exception of potatoes, are coated with milk and flour, egg and crumbs, batter or pastry to:

·        Protect the surface of the food from intense heat.

·        Prevent the escape of moisture and nutrients.

·        Modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat.

The food is carefully placed into deep preheated oil or fat, fried until cooked and golden brown, well drained and served.

Partial deep-frying is known as blanching and may be applied to chipped potatoes. The purpose is to partly cook in advance of service and to complete the cooking to order. With certain types of potatoes this gives an eating quality of a floury inside and crisp exterior to the chips.

Effects of deep frying:

Deep frying of items coated with milk or egg seals the surface by coagulation of the protein, with the minimum absorption of fat. However, the interior may be raw, as in apple fritters, and will require to be cooked. A cooked interior, as in croquette potatoes, needs only to be heated thoroughly. The coating (batter etc) does not need to be cooked. With uncoated items, such as chipped potatoes, the food absorbs a large amount of fat thus affecting the texture and nutritional content.

Advantages:

·        Blanching, or partial cooking, enables certain foods to be held for cooking later, which helps during busy service and saves time.

·        Coating foods enables a wide variety to be cooked by this method.

·        Foods can be cooked quickly and easily handled for service.

·        Coated foods are quickly sealed, thus preventing the enclosed food becoming greasy.

Temperature and control:

With deep fat frying it is essential for fat temperatures to be maintained at the correct degree. When quantities of food are being continuously fried, after the removal of one batch the temperature of the fat must be allowed to recover before the next batch is cooked. If this is not done the food will be pale and insipid in appearance and soggy to eat.

Timing is important, if thicker pieces of food are being cooked, the temperature must be lowered to allow for sufficient cooking time otherwise the food will be overcoloured and undercooked. The reserve is also true; the smaller the pieces of food the hotter the frying temperature and the shorter the cooking time.

General rules:

·        Systematic preparation and cooking are essential.

·        Never overfill fryer with fat or oil or food to be cooked.

·        When using free-standing fryers without a thermometer never allow smoke to rise from the fat; this will give a disagreeable taste and smell to food being fried.

·        The normal frying temperature is between 175’C and 195’C, this is indicated by a slight heat haze rising from the fat.

·        Do not attempt to fry too much of food at once time.

·        Allow fat to recover its heat before adding the next batch of food.

·        Ensure a correct oil/fat ratio to food. If too much food is cooked in too little fat, even if the initial temperature of the fat is correct, the effect of a large amount of food will reduce the temperature drastically and spoil the food.

·        Reduce frying temperature during slack periods to continuous fuel.

·        Restrict holding time to minimum- fried food soon lose their crispiness.

·        Oil and fat should be strained after use, otherwise remaining food particles will burn when the fat is next heated thus spoiling the appearance and flavour of the food.

·        Always cover oil or fat when not in use to prevent oxidation.

Safety:

·        Always only half-full fryers with fat or oil.

·        Never overload fryers with food.

·        Dry foods, such as potatoes, thoroughly before frying, otherwise they will splutter and cause burn.

·        Always place food carefully in the fryer away from you. If it is added towards you, hot fat could splash and burn.

·        Always have a fryer basket and spider to hand in case food is required to be lifted out of the fryer quickly. A combination of the fats being too hot, fat almost ready for discarding and the food being damp can result in the fat boiling over. If it is a free-standing friture on the stove then there is a risk of fire.

·        Move free-standing fryers with great care so as not to jar them and spill fat on the stove.

·        Ensure that correct fire preventing equipment is to hand and that you are familiar with the fire drill procedure.

·        Keep sleeves rolled down at all times when handling fryers.

·        Use clean, dry, thick sound cloths when handling fritures.

·        Allow fat to cool before straining.

4.13     Baking:

Baking is the cooking of food by dry heat in an oven in which the action of the dry convection heat is modified by steam.

Purpose:

The purpose of baking is:

·        To make food digestible, palatable and safe to eat.

·        To create eye-appeal through colour and texture and produce an enjoy able eating quality.

·        To lead variety to the menu.

Methods:

Oven must be preheated prior to baking.                                                 

·        Dry baking: when baking, steam arises from the water content of the food; this steam combines with the dry heat of the oven to cook the food (cakes, pastry, baked jacket potatoes).

·        Baking with increased humidity: when baking certain foods, such as bread, the oven humidity is increased by placing a bowl of water or injecting steam into the oven, thus increasing the water content of the food and so improving eating quality.

·        Baking with heat modification: placing food in a container of water (bain-marie), such as baked egg custard, modifies the heat so that the food cooks more slowly, does not over-heated and lessens the possibility of the egg mixture overcooking.

Effect of baking:

Chemical action caused by the effect of heat on certain ingredients, such as yeast and baking powder, changes the raw structure of many foods to an edible texture (pastry, cakes). However, different ingredients, methods of mixing and types of product require will cause many variations.

Advantages of baking:

·        A wide variety of sweets and savoury foods can be produced.

·        Bakery products yield appetizing goods with eye-appeal and mouth-watering aromas.

·        Bulk cooking can be achieved with uniformity temperature of colour and degree of cooking.

·        Baking ovens have effective manual or automatic temperature controls.

·        There is straightforward access for loading and removal of items.

Time and temperature control:

·        Ovens must always be heated to the required temperature before the food is added.

·        In general-purpose ovens, shelves must be placed according to the food being cooked, because the hotter part of the oven is at the top. With convection ovens the heat is evenly distributed.

·        Accurate timing and temperature control are essential to baking. The required oven temperature must be reached before each additional batch of goods is placed in the oven. This is known as recovery time.

General rules:

·        Always preheat ovens so that the required cooking temperature is immediately applied to the product, otherwise the product will be spoiled.

·        Accuracy is essential in weighting measuring and controlling temperature.

·        Trays and moulds must be correctly prepared.

·        Minimize the opening of oven doors as draughts may affect the quality of the product, and the oven temperature is reduced.

·        Utilize oven space efficiently.

·        Avoid jarring of products (fruit cake, sponge, souffles) before and during baking as the quality may be affected.

Safety:

·        Use thick, dry, sound oven cloths for handling hot trays etc.

·        Jackets sleeves should be rolled down to prevent burns from hot trays and ovens.

·        Trays and ovens should not be overloaded.

·        Extra care is needed to balance and handle loaded trays in and out of the oven.

4.14     Microwave cookery:   

This is a method of cooking and reheating food using electromagnetic waves in a microwave oven powered by electricity. The microwaves are similar to those which carry television signals from the transmitter to the receiver but are at a higher frequency. The microwaves active the water molecules or particles of food and agitate them, causing heat by friction which cooks or reheats the food.

Purpose:  

·        Raw, prepared or precooked foods are cooked quickly and made palatable and digestible.

·        Foods are safer to eat, particularly reheated foods, because the total food is heated at the same time.

Application:

Microwave cooking can be used for cooking raw food, reheating cooked food and defrosting frozen foods.

Advantages:

·        A saving of between 50 to 70 per cent over conventional cooking times on certain foods.

·        A quick way to cook and reheat foods.

·        A fast method of defrosting foods.

·        Economical on: electricity and labour.

·        Hot meals can be available 24 hours a day and completely operated on a self-service basis, thereby increasing consumer satisfaction and reducing costs.

·        Food is cooked in its own juices so flavour and goodness are retained.

·        Minimizes food shrinkage and drying out.

·        When used with conventional cooking methods, production can be more flexible.

Disadvantages:

·        Not suitable for all foods.

·        Limited oven space restricts use to small quantities.

·        Many microwave ovens do not brown food, although browning elements are available within certain models.

·        Not all containers are suitable for use.

·        Microwaves can only penetrate 5 cm into food from all sides.

Special points for attention:

·        Baked potatoes and whole unpeeled apples must have the skin pierced in order to release pressure and prevent them burning.

·        Eggs must not be cooked in their shells or they will burst.

·        Cover foods when possible to reduce condensation and spluttering.

Safety:

·        If the oven door is damage, do not use it.

·        Don not operate the oven when it is empty.

·        Remember to pierce foods and cover foods that are likely to burst.

4.15     En-papillotte:

This is method of cookery in which food is tightly sealed in oiled greaseproof paper or foil so that no steam escapes during cooking and maximum natural flavour and nutritive value is retained.

Thick iteams of food, such as veal chop or red mullet, may be partially and quickly precooked, usually by grilling or shallow frying, then finely cut vegetables, herbs and spices can be added. The bags are tightly sealed, placed on a lightly greased tray and cooked in a hot oven. When cooked, the food is served in the bag and opened by or in front of the customer.

4.16     Special types of cooking:

Solar cooking:

Solar cooking:

It is similar to what we use in the kitchen to cook food. Solar cooker works only on Solar Energy, it emits no smoke, no soot spoils the cooking utensils. It keeps the surroundings clean. Above all, it conserves the precious energy resources of the country and saves us money.

Principles of Solar Cooker:

Solar cookers can be broadly divided into two categories:

·        Cookers utilizing solar heat with little or no concentration of rays. It may be termed as a “hot box”.

·        Cookers which deflects solar energy from a large surface to a smaller area to produce high temperature.

The first type of solar cooker commonly known as a ‘hot box’ consists of a well-insulated box, the inside of which is painted dull black and is covered by one or more transparent covers. The purpose of the transparent covers is to trap heat inside the solar cooker. These cookers allow the radiation from the sun to come inside but do not allow the heat from the hot black absorbing plate to come out of the box. It is because of this the temperatures of the blackened plate inside the box increases and can heat up the space inside to temperature up to 140’C which are adequate for cooking.

The second type of solar cooker uses a lens or a reflector suitably designed to concentrate the solar radiation over a small area. This cooker is able to provide high temperature on its absorbing surface when suitably designed.

Advantages of solar cooker:

·        It cooks up to four items at a time.

·        It preserves the nutrition value of the food because the cooking is done at low temperature.

·        It does not require constant attention.

·        It is safe and does not burn.

·        Saves fuel.

·        Keeps food hot for a long time.

Disadvantages:

·        It needs the sun and will not give results on a cloudy day.

·        Only simmering methods is adopted.

4.17     Invalid Cookery:

This is not a special method of cookery but we have to use our knowledge of baking, boiling, steaming etc for this type and in additional follow some rules which apply specially to food prepared for sick. An invalid usually has a weak appetite and needs tempting because strength can only be regained through taking suitable food. Wrong food may kill a patient, while badly prepared food will retard recovery. Good food, well cooked and served will do much towards saving the patient’s life.

Convalescents very in appetite according to the mature of their complaints. But whether they have good appetites or not., their food should be easily digestible as they cannot take as much exercise as a normal person.

Important points in catering for invalids:

·        Consult the doctor as to the patient’s diet and obey his instructions.

·        Choose food that will supply necessary nourishment.

·        Prepare food that is easily digestible.

·        Prepare well balance meal. Sometimes, patients are not allowed to eat meat, starches, sugar etc.

·        In a serious illness, food is usually given in a liquid form.

·        In convalescence see that the solid food is light, easily digestible and served in small quantities.

·        As convalescence proceeds, increase the food in amount and varity.

·        Food should be fresh.

·        Vary the food and the method of cooking as much as possible. This stimulates appetite.

Suitable dishes are:

Liquid: fresh fruit juice, barley water, beef tea, egg flip, lemonade or orangeade.

Soft food: made with milk eg..junket or milk jelly, custard pudding, blancemange, broth, light soups, rice conjee etc.

Solid food: white fish, fowl, rabbit, sweetbread or pancreas, liver dishes, khitchdi etc.

4.18     Rechauffe:

Although freshly cooked food is better than any which has been reheated, in the interests of economy and food management, reheating of food forms an important part of cooking. A clever cook should take pride in seeing that the second appearance is appetizing and that the maximum amount of nourishing is retained. Great care must be taken in reheating food, particularly meat. Since it is already cooked, further will toughen the fibers and harden the proteins, thus making the food indigestible. Therefore, the first rule is never recook, only reheat.

Food may be warmed in a moderate oven if carefully covered. Steaming is one of the best method of reheating as the heat is gentle and does not dry the food. A covering is necessary to prevent the condensed steam to fall on the food.

Rules of reheating foods:

·        Never re-cook, only re-heat.

·        Make use of all types of food, but make sure it is fresh.

·        Remove gristle, bones and skin but not fat unless in excess because it helps to keep food moist.

·        Divide evenly so that flavouring and seasoning may penetrate quickly and so that reheating of food may be done quickly to avoid recooking.

·        Additional moisture is always necessary in the form of sauce or gravy as most of the original moisture will have been removed.

·        Cook any ingredients such as vegetables before adding it to the food that has to be reheated, eg cutlet. (Potato has to be boiled first).

·        Cooked meat and fish becomes insipid when cold. So they must be carefully seasoned and flavoured in reheating.

·        It is often necessary to coat food to protect it from direct heat and, therefore, merely reheat eg

1.      Covering with potato as in shepherd’s pie.

2.      Coating with egg and breadcrumb.

3.      Enclosing in pastry as in mutton patties.

4.      Enclosing in batter as in pan rolls.

·        Serve with good gravy or a sharp sauce as an accompaniment.

·        Serve hot. Half-warmed, reheated food is far from appetizing.